AFCO

Committee on Constitutional Affairs

By Amélie Pasmanns (DE)

“Radical Right Challenges to Europe’s Cohesion: The latest elections and polls in different Member States have revealed a rise in the political representation of far-right ideologies, which openly call for the dissolution of the EU or repeatedly undermine its values as outlined in the Treaty on European Union. With euroscepticism on the rise, what can the EU do to foster support for its mission and institutions, and strengthen European stability and democracy?”

Executive Summary 

Right-wing parties have been on the rise in many EU Member States and in the European Parliament itself. Possible reasons for citizens to vote in favour of far-right parties are, among others, a lack of trust in current governments, a feeling of being left behind socially and economically, and using minorities and immigrants as scapegoats for current problems. The main challenges of this topic are changing citizens’ attitudes towards the EU and making sure they do not fall for right-wing mobilisation strategies. Moreover, the rural-urban divide and online extremism need to be tackled. While the EU can act to protect its main values of democracy and human rights, Member States are primarily responsible for ensuring that their parties are adhering to EU values of non-discrimination and inclusion. How can the EU protect its core values and ensure that euroscepticism does not continue growing?

Introduction and Relevance of the Topic

Right wing parties in EU Member States and within the European Parliament itself have been on the rise during the last decade. For example, in November of 2023, the Dutch far-right populist party ‘Partij voor de vrijheid’ (PVV) received the most votes out of all parties, gaining 23.7%. However, this phenomenon is not geographically bound to single Member States, but rather a EU-wide problem (see Figure 1 below). With the upcoming European elections in June 2024 this shift to the right could fundamentally shape the EU of tomorrow. 

The term ‘far-right’ is an umbrella term for right wing ideologies such as anti-democracy and right extremism. They are characterised by nativism1 and authoritarianism2, leading to a hierarchical society that excludes minority groups such as the LGBTQ+ community and is openly racist, sexist, and anti-immigration. The term ‘far-right’ moreover includes both the extreme and radical right. The extreme right rejects the basis of democracy, such as the majority rule, while the radical right rejects basic features of democracy such as pluralism3 and minority rights. While nationalist claims and euroscepticism are a cornerstone of radical right parties (RRPs), they also tend to unite in pan-European alliances despite their euroscepticism. This idea of a common European identity is often fueled by notions of racial superiority and colonialism. This ‘Euronationalism4’ is a further breeding ground for anti-migration and anti-globalisation arguments. 

Eurosceptic parties can roughly be divided into ‘hard’ and ‘soft’. Hard eurosceptic parties are opposed to the entire European project, while soft eurosceptic parties are only concerned about certain parts of European integration. Examples for hard eurosceptic parties include the PVV in the Netherlands and the ‘Alternative für Deutschland’ (AfD) in Germany. Examples of soft eurosceptic parties are Fidesz in Hungary and Vox in Spain. 

The reasons why people decide to vote for far-right parties are diverse. Possible motivations include fear of social change and diversification of society. For example, fear of economic and cultural change due to migration also plays a role in voting for right-winged parties. This trend is most notable in older populations and those with lower education levels and low social mobility. Understanding these diverse motivations for voting for far-right parties helps to identify fundamental challenges posed by the intersection of socio-economic factors with political ideologies and societal dynamics.

Figure 1: Overview of votes gained by right-wing parties in Europe (2023).

Fundamental Challenges

The current state of the EU has often been described as one of ‘permacrisis’ meaning that the EU is constantly facing challenges and citizens continuously have to adapt to new norms. This section highlights some of the main challenges of this topic, however, many more challenges could be identified in the individual Member States. 

Attitude of citizens towards the EU

In order to effectively tackle challenges, the EU needs the trust and  support of its citizens. The citizens’ attitudes towards the EU is crucial for shaping EU politics and active citizenship. Notable differences exist between the far right and the centre. According to a 2023 study, 33% of citizens with a far right ideology had a positive attitude towards the EU in comparison to 45% of citizens with centre ideologies. 32% of citizens with a far right ideology had an outspoken negative attitude towards the EU and 35% positioned themselves as neutral. 

Regional development traps 5

As the divide between rural and urban areas grows, rural places often feel left behind, increasing threats to trust in democracy and social cohesion. Rural areas often have a lower standard of living, lower income rates, and less employment opportunities. This leads to less support for the EU, more discontent, and increased anti-EU sentiments. Far-right political movements then make use of these sentiments to get voters to support their anti-EU narratives. 

Rise of RRPs within the European Parliament

Simultaneous to the increased voting rates in Member State governments, RRPs are also gaining influence in the European Parliament. The Euroscepticism of these parties can for example lead to critical views on EU enlargement. The opposition to enlargement is often rooted in racist identity-related concerns about non-EU Member States. Having those views voiced within the European Parliament increases the normalisation of xenophobic and racist statements, leading to a desensitisation. In terms of transnational cooperation, RRPs face some natural difficulties with formulating common goals, nevertheless, they show willingness to combine their efforts and increase their strength. 

Reaching target populations

Nowadays, right-wing extremism is not confined to a certain social group anymore. Thus, it can be difficult to define and reach target groups for interventions. 

Online extremism and cross border cooperation 

Today’s interactive use of the Internet enables RRPs and right-wing extremists to connect from regional to global scales, creating new means to recruit sympathists. Online platforms are used to exchange tactics and know-how, leading to a further spread of far-right rethorics to diverse social groups. This international connection calls for cross border cooperation to combat the spread of extremism. However, most analyses are currently done on a national level and European coordination and cooperation are largely missing. 

Key Stakeholders 

  • Member States: The EU Member States are primarily responsible for implementing and applying EU law correctly. This means that in case parties act against EU laws, the Member States and their national courts need to take care of them. 
  • European Parliament: As the parliament is directly elected by EU citizens, it has to deal with RRPs being included in its ranks. Any statements or actions that are against EU laws need to be sanctioned or lead to expulsion of members. 
  • European Commision: The Commission is responsible to monitor the adherence of Member States to EU treaties. It has to make sure that EU law is respected in all Member States. Moreover, the Commission can start projects such as ‘Europe for Citizens’ that work against euroscepticism. 
  • Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU): The CJEU can decide how to sanction Member States who undermine EU law and values.  
  • RRPs: As the existence of RRPs cannot be ignored, they need to be closely monitored by Member States and the Commission in order to make sure they operate within legal limits of European democracy. 
  • EU citizens: As EU citizens influence both national and EU politics through voting and civil society engagements, their attitude and opinions on the EU and RRPs are crucial. This can for example be seen in the recent mass protest against right wing parties in Germany. 
  • Social media platforms: Right-wing players often use a variety of online outlets such as encrypted chat apps,  social networking sites, and unmoderated message boards to communicate, but also to harass their targets and opponents. Social media is often used to spread false information and to make the right-wing views more normalised in the general population. Factual information on RRPs is crucial to offer citizens an unbiased view of the political landscape. 

Measures in Place

Measures on EU level

There are two EU treaties commonly referred to as the primary law of the EU, namely the Treaty on European Union (TEU) and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). While the TEU contains general provisions of the EU, the TFEU is concerned with specific rules regarding EU institutions and policies. 

As outlined in Article 2 of the TEU, the EU is founded on the principles of human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and respect for human rights. This also includes the rights of minorities and is further highlighted in the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. As RRPs may endanger human rights for minorities such as immigrants, the EU needs to ensure that all Member States adhere to the aforementioned values. To do this, Article 7 of the TEU offers tools to sanction breaches of EU values such as taking away voting rights in the Council. This gives the EU power to infer in areas otherwise left to Member States in case of ‘serious and persistent breaches’. 

Article 258 of the TFEU states that the Commission can bring Member States to the CJEU if they fail to fulfil their obligations as defined by the treaties. As the Commission is the guardian of EU treaties, it can propose sanctions in case that Member States do not comply with them. However, the CJEU ultimately decides which penalties will be imposed. 

Other instruments for the protection of EU values include the EU Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA), established in 2007, which tracks fundamental rights in the EU and publishes annual reports. Moreover, the Commission has strengthened the protection of minorities by implementing strategies and actions to combat racism, hate crimes and anti-semitism under the concept of the ‘Union of Equality’. Additionally, the EU’s Digital Service Act (DSA) aids in regulating online spaces including social networks. The key goals of the DSA are a better protection of fundamental rights for EU citizens and more protection from illegal content online, for example by decreasing manipulation and disinformation.  

Measure on Member State level

The regulations on right-wing extremism and RRPs are different in the EU Member States. Some mention it in their constitutions, others focus on criminalising behaviour connected to right-wing extremism. Legislation in Member States revolves around targeting ideologies such as Nazism and facism, criminal law, and law regarding registration and dissolution of right-wing organisations and parties. Non-legislative responses such as civil society institutions are also important in responding to right-wing extremism. History and politics suggest that there is no one solution to this problem, but that it rather should be dealt with on a context-specific basis for each Member State. 

Right wing strategies

In this section, three main strategies of mobilisation for far-right extremists are highlighted, namely making use of social issues, making other politics seem corrupt, and propagating national identity. This may help you to understand why RRPs are gaining influence in the EU. 

  1. Right wing extremism as a result of of crisis 

By targeting people who are going through economic or social changes, RRPs make use of fear surrounding loss of labour, income, and social prestige. They position themselves as supporters of the common people who are the victims of globalised processes and governments in power.

  1. Right wing extremism as a result of political representation 

RRPs often presented themselves as the true voice of society, representing the ‘man in the street’. They frame those in power as being the representatives of the elite, using people’s frustration with the status quo to gain votes. This strategy is called ‘populism’. 

  1. Right wing extremism as a result of identity crises 

With the goal of an ethnically homogenous society in mind, RRPs cling to the idea of national identity, alienating anyone who does not fit the standard in their opinion. They use those ‘others’ as scapegoats for societal and individual problems.  

Local Shifts and Influences on the EU

As mentioned in the introduction, the Netherlands have recently seen a shift to the right in their November 2023 elections. This does not come as a surprise, as other EU Member States such as Hungary, Italy, and Slovakia also have eurosceptic parties in power. To understand why many Dutch people voted for the PVV, their interaction with the other parties are important. The last leading party ‘Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie’ (VVD) considered a coalition with the PVV, signalling the legitimacy of their anti-EU and other discriminatory opinions. Due to the increase in votes for PVV and other right-wing parties, a fully right-wing coalition for government is now possible. If this coalition was to actually come about, the Dutch foreign policy and stance on the EU would be shaped by xenophobic and anti-islam views. Keeping in mind that the Netherlands are not the only right-wing-led Member State, the EU might be forced to scale back policies on issues including among others migration, climate protection, and the support for Ukraine. This shows how local changes in government may affect the entirety of Europe. 

Outlook 

As this topic is very nuanced and has varying impacts on the different Member States, can you think of an example of right-wing euroscepticism in your country? What happened and how did it affect you and those around you? 

Looking at current challenges with RRPs and a general lack of trust in the EU, how can the EU work on increasing citizens’ contentment with the EU and avoid them falling for right-wing mobilisation strategies? 

Links for Further Research 

  1.  Nativism is xenophobic nationalism with the goal of establishing a homogeneous nation state. ↩︎
  2.  Authoritarianism is the belief that a state should have very strict laws and infringements of those should be punished harshly. ↩︎
  3. Pluralism is the notion that in a state with diverse social groups different cultures and interests are developed within the confines of common civilization.   ↩︎
  4.  Euronationalism is the notion that particular markers such as ethnicity or skin colour can distinguish ‘real’ Europeans from ‘others’. ↩︎
  5.  Regional development traps can be defined as regions that face structural challenges hindering economic development, leading to a cycle of poverty and inequity. ↩︎